[tt] Next Big Future - 5 new articles
Eugen Leitl
<eugen at leitl.org> on
Sat Aug 23 19:25:37 UTC 2008
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Subject: Next Big Future - 5 new articles
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Here are the latest updates for eugen at leitl.org
"[2]Next Big Future" - 5 new articles
1. [3]Progress on India's Thorium Nuclear Reactor and South Africa's
Pebble Bed
2. [4]Progress towards a Helium atom microscope
3. [5]Carnival of Space Week 68
4. [6]Philip Moriarty discusses Molecular Nanotechnology Validation
experiment plans
5. [7]Stem cells for Unlimited Blood Supply Could Provide the money
for Stem Cell Life Extension
6. [8]More Recent Articles
7. [9]Search Next Big Future
[10]Progress on India's Thorium Nuclear Reactor and South Africa's Pebble
Bed
Progress on South Africa's Pebble Bed Reactor
[11]Canada's SNC Lavalin has gotten a C$253 million contract to help
build the second phase of a demonstration Pebble Bed Modular Reactor
(PBMR) for completion by 2014 in Koeberg, South Africa. The small
advanced reactor, a South African national project, would produce 165
MWe and could be built in 'packs' of eight. It is hoped that up to 30
of the units would be used in South Africa in coming decades, taking
industrial heat-supply roles in the production of hydrogen and
synthetic oils as well as electricity. The PBMR design is also a
contender for build in the USA in the Next Generation Nuclear Plant
project.
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India's Thorium Reactor
The head of the Mumbai reactor design and development group, Ratan
Kumar Sinha, spoke to IEEE Spectrum about India's Thorium reactor
design and plans. The Thorium reactor will have less waste (unburned
fuel) than current reactors and is designed to operate for 100 years
instead of 30-60 years for current reactors.
[18]In April, 2008, India started a test reactor for its Thorium
design, which has a flexible configuration and allows use of a range
of fuel materials; we can even physically shift the distance between
fuel rods. Here we are able to simulate the reactor almost 100
percent.
They have used the well-proven pressure-tube technology and introduced
many passive safety features, a distinguishing one being the reactor's
ability to remove core heat by natural circulation of coolant under
normal operating and shutdown conditions. This eliminates the need for
nuclear-grade circulating pumps, which, besides providing economic
advantages, enhances reliability.
They have also introduced passive shutdown on the main heat transport
system in case of a failure of the wired shutdown system. Using
mechanical energy from the increased steam pressure, the system
injects neutron poison into the moderator [that sustains the nuclear
chain reaction]. There are several other safety features, which are
important, because they allow the reactor to be built close to the
population.
Sinha: This is a vertical, pressure-tube-type, heavy-water-moderated,
and boiling-light-water-cooled natural circulation reactor. The fuel
assembly is 10.5 meters in length and is suspended from the top in the
coolant channel. The fuel cluster has 54 pins arranged in three
concentric rings around a central rod. The 24 pins in the outer ring
have thorium-plutonium as fuel, and the 30 pins in the inner and
middle rings have thorium-uranium-233 as fuel. The plutonium pins are
placed in the outer ring to minimize the plutonium requirement. The
thorium provides 60 percent of the reactor's power.
The reactor is designed [to last] 100 years. Present-generation
reactors have a design life of about 40 years, and many of the
reactors in the West have been extended beyond that. However, what
goes inside the core of our advanced reactors will have a lifetime of
[only] about 30 years, so the design includes replacement of the
material twice in the life of the reactor, which can be carried out
during normal annual shutdowns. The reactor is also designed for
on-power fueling.
The reactor will produce 300 megawatts of electricity and 500 cubic
meters per day of desalinated water for its own purposes.
The perennial challenge was to match the reactor's physics
requirements with heat-removal requirements from the core. Physicists
wanted to bring down the moderator use as low as possible, which meant
the reactor had to be made very compact, with fuel rods being placed
as close to one another as possible. The fuel rod spacing had to be
reduced from the standard 270 millimeters to 245, and finally to 225
µm--something not attempted anywhere before. And that tremendously
improved the performance of the reactor.
Another innovation was in differentially enriching the fuel [that is,
boosting its fissile content] at the top and bottom of the central
rod. The upper half has 2.5 percent enrichment; the lower half has 4
percent enrichment. This caused the power to jump from 230 MW to 300
MW.
Why was thorium not economical?
Sinha: Thorium has a much lower neutron multiplication rate than
plutonium, and hence you cannot achieve power levels in a reactor as
high as with plutonium. When burned, thorium initially acts like a
blotting paper for neutrons and keeps absorbing them. But this
exercise also means it is getting enriched and converted into U-233,
which will pay dividends later on. Once the energy generated has
reached 40 000 megawatt-days per metric ton, U-233 starts contributing
many more neutrons than what has been lost in absorption by thorium.
So you tend to get economic benefits of thorium if you have a fuel
that can run up to 40 000 MWd/t and beyond. But most early generation
reactors had lower burn-up values of around 15 000 to 20 000 MWd/t.
These have, of course, risen to about 40 000 MWd/t in recent time. So
the world is now thinking of thorium.
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[36]Progress towards a Helium atom microscope
Electron microscopes are great for magnification but they tend to
destroy or damage what they are looking at. Similar magnification
should be possible using a much lower-energy, gentler beam of helium
atoms and recording how they are scattered by a sample. Up to this
point only 1% of helium atoms can be reflected and focused from thin
film silicon.
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[43]Vázquez de Parga and his team found they could avoid surface bumps
by depositing the lead onto the silicon surface at low temperatures
between -173 and -133°C. The end result is a perfectly smooth lead
film that can act as an almost flawless mirror. The surface is
atomically flat, more than 90% of the film is exactly the same
thickness, down to the level of individual lead atoms. It can focus
more than 15% of incoming helium atoms into a tight beam, and Vázquez
de Parga hopes to increase this proportion to 40%.
Bill Allison at Cambridge University, UK, leads a team
experimenting with thin silicon mirrors to focus beams of helium.
"[This work] represents a key step forward in producing a device to
focus helium atoms," he says.
"The remaining step is to combine the high reflectivity with a
carefully deformed surface in order to create a focused atomic
spot. That is still quite a challenge."
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[61]Carnival of Space Week 68
[62]Crowlspace hosts the carnival of space week 68.
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[69]This site supplies an analysis of the technology that an
interstellar capable civilization should have and an alternative to
big antimatter rockets with mirror laser array propulsion
[70]Centauri Dreams considers the difficulties of interstellar travel.
[71]Crowlspace looks at antimatter propulsion.
Check out the carnival of space week 68 for a lot more.
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[89]Philip Moriarty discusses Molecular Nanotechnology Validation experiment
plans
[90]On the Center for Responsible Nanotechnology blog comments, Philip
Moriarty discusses his plans for [91]testing the viability of
positionally-controlled atom-by-atom fabrication of diamondoid
materials as described in the Freitas-Merkle minimal toolset theory
paper.
A combination of low temperature tuning fork (Qplus) AFM, STM, and
tunnelling spectroscopy (dI/dV and d2I/dV2, i.e. inelastic
tunnelling spectroscopy) will be used to implement and/or
characterise scanning probe-driven mechanosynthesis reactions on
diamond (C(100)) in UHV and at temperatures in the 4 K - 300K
range. Initially we will need to demonstrate atomic resolution on
C(100). We will then explore some of the ideas in Freitas and
Merkle's "minimal toolset" paper in order to extract hydrogen from
a H-passivated C(100) surface and subsequently add a carbon dimer.
As regards verification, a key goal is for theory and experiment to
run in parallel, one reinforcing the other. For example, we will
aim to reproduce experimental force-distance spectra (measured as a
tip approaches a diamond surface during a mechanosynthesis
reaction) using DFT calculations. You ask whether the research
includes "seeking out work-arounds". Yes, most definitely! There's
an interesting quote from a recent international review of UK
materials research that should be printed in bold capital letters
on the front of all documentation produced by funding bodies, viz.:
"Research is always about risk taking, no matter whether the risk
involves failure to meet a certain set of expectations or failure
to create truly new, significant knowledge or understanding of a
problem. To be clear, if the outcome of the effort can be
anticipated, it is highly questionable whether this effort should
be called research."
When the project gets going I will aim to set up a blog that will
report on progress.
Philip also had a comment about diamond versus graphene
nanotechnology.
It's important to note that the diamond mechanosynthesis proposal
focuses specifically on diamond and, indeed, on a particular
challenge which I first raised in my debate with Chris Phoenix a
few years back: scanning probe "epitaxy" of a row of carbon dimers
using purely force-driven reactions on hydrogen-passivated diamond.
Rob Freitas and Ralph Merkle's recent minimal toolset paper has
been particularly important in defining the plan and objectives of
the proposal and I want to stay focused on this, rather than move
to graphene.
Graphene is, of course, a very interesting system and it's possible
that we may explore this in the course of the five year
mechanosynthesis grant. My suspicion, however, is that achieving
basic "mechanoepitaxy" on diamond will take at the very least five
years!
As regards [Jim Moore] points:
1. Being able to hold a sheet of graphene away from another surface
may well be useful for longer term mechanosynthetic work but the
primary objective of the EPSRC-funded work is to demonstrate the
validity of a small number of mechanosynthesis reactions - which
have been explored by Freitas and Merkle via DFT calculations using
very many thousands of CPU hours - on a bulk diamond surface.
2. This is actually a rather challenging way of detecting a
successful operation. It will be more straight-forward to use the
scanning probe itself - through force-distance, I(V) and d2I/dV2
(inelastic) tunnelling spectroscopy - to monitor a successful
mechanosynthesis reaction event.
3. The metastability of diamond with respect to graphite/graphene
is not really an issue here. The H:C(100) surface represents an
excellent platform for site specific scanning probe-driven
chemistry. Drexler understood this very well - his choice of
diamond(oid) in Nanosystems was very well-informed.
4. Hmmmm. Yes, graphene is certainly a well-funded area but it may
not always be a good idea to chase current trends in order to
secure money for research!
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Validation experiment plans'
[109]Stem cells for Unlimited Blood Supply Could Provide the money for Stem
Cell Life Extension
[110]
Advanced Cell Technology is the company behind the new stem cell blood
breakthrough which could supply unlimited disease free blood. The
company is only up 50% to a valuation of 6.7 million. [111]Biotime is
a related company
[112]Robert Lanza is the chief scientist behind Advanced Cell
Technology and was featured in Discover Magazine. He is also working
on using stem cells for curing spinal injury and regenerating limbs
and extending life span. Progess has been delayed by insufficient
funding and regulations. With the blood breakthrough funding could be
less of a problem.
We have cells that reverse paralysis in sheep that have spina
bifida and can't walk. After we injected our cells, the first
animal that we treated returned to normal and was walking fine. The
same model could work for paralyzed humans, but without funding, we
haven't been able to repeat the experiment in five years. People
are in wheelchairs when there could be a cure.
We're continuing [the work of harvesting embryonic stem cells from
human clones], but with less urgency since the discovery of induced
pluripotent stem cells, or iPS cells--adult cells that have been
reprogrammed back to an embryonic state. We're working on new ways
to reprogram skin cells that would allow us to safely create a bank
of stem cell lines that would closely match the population as a
whole. It turns out that only 100 cell lines could give you a
complete haplotype, or immune, match for 50 percent of the U.S.
population. These reprogrammed cells are not as controversial since
you don't use cloning or embryo
Hemangioblasts and Life Extension
It turns out that the human life span plateaus as it approaches a
roof of about 120. By eliminating infectious diseases, some chronic
diseases, and cancer, we can get the life span past 100. I think
with tissue engineering we can patch you together like a bicycle
tire, replacing a kidney with a kidney and a heart with a heart, to
about 120 years. That was always my thinking: That was the limit.
But with these hemangioblasts, I now have questioned my own rules.
These cells can go in and fix the damaged tissue inside, almost
like nanoparticles. We may be able to do the same thing with
similar cell lines for neurons, where we can repair the damage in
the brain itself. So if it continues the way it's going, we may
break that ceiling, like breaking the sound barrier. I'd be very
hesitant to put a lid as to where longevity is going to go.
We recently published a paper on a cell we created called a
hemangioblast, which exists only transiently in the embryo but not in
the adult. I think of them like unicorns, these elusive cells that we
had hypothesized and sought for years. With the ability to become all
of the blood cells--including your immune cells, red blood cells, all
of your blood system, as well as vasculature--hemangioblasts have been
biology's holy grail. What we discovered is that we can create
literally millions or billions of these from human embryonic stem
cells. Now that we have them, we are harnessing, for the first time,
one of nature's early, most profoundly powerful cellular building
blocks. The point is, we can use transient, intermediate cells like
hemangioblasts as a toolbox to fix the adult so you don't have to have
limbs amputated, so you may not have to go blind, to prevent heart
attacks. We can direct their development into different cell types by
adding certain molecules to them as they divide.
Hemangioblasts can cut heart attack deaths in half
We found that when we injected these cells into a damaged, ischemic
limb, there was almost 100 percent restoration of blood flow in a
month. Before, the limb would have been amputated, but now it was
restored. As to heart attack, injection of the cells cut the death
rate in half.
Hemangioblasts can rebuild a fresh immune system
There are more than 80 autoimmune diseases. What's interesting is that
when you do a bone marrow transplant for cancer, some of those with
autoimmune disease go into remission, as if the immune system has been
eliminated and allowed to rebuild from scratch. Using hemangioblasts
that are the progenitors of the immune system, we're hoping we can
replace the immune cells too.
Hemangioblasts equivalents for other kinds of cells
The way to think ofthis is that you have a tree with branches that
give rise to all of the different tissue types of the body. The
hemangioblast, for instance, gives rise to one branch--to blood cells,
vessels, and the immune system. But there are also neural stem cells
as well as early progenitors that have this plasticity in most of the
other systems of the body. Right now we're trying to discover how to
isolate and expand them.
FURTHER READING
[113]How much can life be extended
[114]Hemangioblasts
The concept of the hemangioblast derives from the work of Florence
Sabin in 1920. Her work on the development of chick embryos led her
to propose the existence of an angioblast, or a vascular precursor
cell . Later, work by Murray expanded on Sabin's work, noting that
cells in the mesoderm (a region in the embryo where blood and early
vasculature form) flattened to form endothelial cells (the interior
lining of the blood vessel) at the same time as blood development.
From this evidence, Murray proposed that a common precursor
existed. he termed this the hemangioblast. In a 2003 review,
"Converging Roads: Evidence for the Adult Hemangioblast," research
from the last eighty three years was summarized.
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----- End forwarded message -----
--
Eugen* Leitl <a href="http://leitl.org">leitl</a> http://leitl.org
______________________________________________________________
ICBM: 48.07100, 11.36820 http://www.ativel.com http://postbiota.org
8B29F6BE: 099D 78BA 2FD3 B014 B08A 7779 75B0 2443 8B29 F6BE
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